History in Afghanistan

Agriculture and permanent settlements emerged in Afghan regions more than 6,000 years ago. During the Bronze Age, urban culture developed in the north; Tepe Fullol is dated to approximately 2,200 BCE. Lapis lazuli and other raw materials reached neighbouring regions through trade routes. Bactria and the BMAC contexts show that early development had several centres. In antiquity, various Afghan regions belonged to the sphere of influence of the Achaemenids, to the realms that emerged after Alexander's campaign around 328 BCE, to the Seleucid world and to the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Contacts with Mauryan, Indo-Greek, Scythian and Parthian polities, as well as the Kushan Empire from century 1 through century 3 CE, connected Bactria, Gandhara, Kabul and the Helmand region. Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and other cults are historically attested. From the Arab conquests beginning in the 7th century, Islamic polities emerged. Islamization took place over several centuries and differed by region. The Samanids, Ghaznavids and Ghurids shaped centres such as Ghazni, Herat, Balkh and Kabul. Seljuk, Khwarazmian, Mongol and Timurid rulers later changed political and cultural connections. The Mongol conquest in the 13th century and Herat as a Timurid centre show that regional axes of power often extended beyond today's state borders. In the early modern period, Mughal, Safavid and Uzbek rulers competed for different Afghan regions. The uprising of Mirwais Hotak led to the Hotak dynasty, which existed from 1709 to 1738. Ahmad Shah Durrani ruled from 1747 to 1772 and founded an empire that extended far beyond present-day Afghanistan. This period therefore cannot readily be interpreted as a linear emergence of a modern nation-state. Modern state formation was accompanied by centralization, border politics and violence. The three Anglo-Afghan Wars took place from 1839 to 1842, from 1878 to 1880 and in 1919. Abdur Rahman Khan ruled from 1880 to 1901 and strengthened central rule while borders and demarcations were reorganized. The Durand Line of 1893 remains disputed. Amanullah Khan achieved independence in 1919 and initiated reforms. The monarchy lasted until 1973; Daoud's republic followed until the Saur Revolution of 1978. Recent history includes the rule of the PDPA and the Democratic Republic, the Soviet intervention beginning in 1979, the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, the conflict involving the mujahideen, the collapse of Najibullah's government in 1992 and the civil war of the 1990s. The Taliban captured Kabul in September 1996 and ruled until 2001. After the US-led military operation began on 7 October 2001, Kabul fell on 13 November 2001. The Bonn transition arrangement led to the Islamic Republic with the 2004 Constitution, which lasted until 2021. On 15 August 2021, the government collapsed and the Taliban took Kabul. They controlled the entire country within a short time and have exercised de facto rule ever since. Armed opposition, ISIL-KP, displacement, civilian harm, the loss of archives, restrictions on the rights of women and girls, and economic and humanitarian consequences are part of the current historical development. The interpretation of the period from 1978 to 2021 as the Cold War, a proxy war, a revolution, a civil war or a conflict between state and society is assessed differently. Historical research in Afghanistan uses Persian- and Dari-language, Pashto, Arabic, Turkic, Greek and Chinese sources, as well as colonial and international archives. Chronicles, documents, coins, archaeology, architecture and oral history complement one another. Provenance, dating, translation, perspective and possible political interests must be examined for every source. The Afghanistan Centre at Kabul University (ACKU) and Afghanistan's national archives (National Archives of Afghanistan) are central reference points; the digital catalogue of the former can also facilitate access. Archives and historical sites, however, depend on the institution, government, province, security situation, language, gender and research project. Written permission may be required; there are no uniform nationwide fees or deadlines. The protection of sources and objects, consent for oral history, and rules against unauthorized excavation, removal and export must be observed. Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Balkh or Mazar, Bamiyan, Nangarhar, Badakhshan, Helmand and Ghor each have their own historical trajectories. Bamiyan connects Buddhist and Islamic historical layers; the Taliban's destruction of the two Buddha statues in 2001 is both an event in recent history and a case of international cultural heritage protection. Historical statements should therefore distinguish between regional development, political rule, living traditions, and the protection of art and monuments.